1 Cois A, Day C (2015) Obesity trends and risk factors in the South African adult population. BMC Obes 2: 42.

2 Shisana O, Labadarios D, Rehle T, Simbayi L, Zuma K, et al. (2013) South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (SANHANES-1). Cape Town, HSRC Press.

3 FAO (2004) Globalization of food systems in developing countries: Impact on food security and nutrition. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 83, Rome.

4 Mvo Z, Dick J, Steyn K (1999) Perceptions of overweight African women about acceptable body size of women and children. Curationis 22: 27-31.

5 Puoane T, Fourie JM, Shapiro M, Rosling L, Tshaka NC, et al. (2005) “Big is beautiful” - an exploration with urban black community health workers in a South African township. South Afr J Clin Nutr 18: 6-15.

6 Alberti KG, Zimmet P, Shaw J (2006) Metabolic syndrome-a new world-wide definition: a consensus statement from the international diabetes federation. Diabet Med 23: 469-80.

7 Akbartabartartoori M, Lean MEJ, Hankey CR (2008) The associations between current recommendation for physical activity and cardiovascular risk associated with obesity. Eur J Clin Nutr 62: 1-9.

8 Micklesfield LK, Lambert EV, Hume JD, Chantler S, Pienaar PR, et al. (2013) Socio-cultural, environmental and behavioural determinants of obesity in black South African women. Cardiovasc J Afr 24: 369-75.

9 Krisela Steyn, Jean Fourie, Norman Temple (2006) Chronic Diseases of Lifestyle in South Africa: 1995 - 2005. South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, 1-8.

10 Puoane TR, Tsolekile LP, Caldbick S, Igumbor EI, Meghnath K, et al. (2013) Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases in South Africa: Progress and challenges. SAHR 2012/13.

11 Miranda JJ, Kinra S, Casas JP, Davey Smith G, Ebrahim S (2008) Non-communicable diseases in low- and middle-income countries: context, determinants and health policy. Trop Med Int Health. 13: 1225-34.

12 Saeed KMI (2013) Prevalence of Risk Factors for Non-Communicable Diseases in the Adult Population of Urban Areas in Kabul City, Afghanistan. Cent Asian J Glob Health 2: 2.

13Bourne L, Lambert EV, Steyn K (2002) Where does the black population of South Africa stand on the nutrition transition? Public Health Nutr 5: 157-62.

14 Bradshaw D, Groenewald P, Laubscher R, Nannan N, Nojilana B, et al. (2003) Initial burden of disease estimates for South Africa, 2000. S Afr Med J 93: 682-8.

15 Pretorius S, Sliwa K (2011) Perspectives and perceptions on the consumption of a healthy diet in Soweto, an urban African community in South Africa. SA Heart J 8: 178-83.

16 Kamadjeu RM, Edwards R, Atanga JS, Kiawi EC, Unwin N, et al. (2006) Anthropometry measures and prevalence of obesity in the urban adult population of Cameroon: an update from the Cameroon Burden of Diabetes Baseline Survey. BMC Public Health 6: 228.

17 Van der Merwe MT, Pepper MS (2006)Obesity in South Africa. Obes Rev 7: 315-22.

18 MacLaren L (2007) Socioeconomic status and obesity. Epidemiologic Reviews 29: 29-48.

19 Ziraba A, Fotso J, Ochako R (2009) Overweight and obesity in urban Africa: a problem of the rich or the poor? BMC Public Health 9: 465.

20 Ng M, Flemming T, Robinson M, Thomson B, Graetz N, et al. (2014) Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980-2013: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2013. Lancet 384: 766-81.

21 Statistics South Africa (STATS SA) (2011) Statistics South Africa. Pretoria, South Africa.

22 Belloc NB, Breslow L (1972) Relationship of physical health status and health practices. Prev Med 1: 409-21.

23 Lee DR, Nieman CD (2010) Nutrition Assessment. 5^th Ed. McGraw-Hill Companies, New York.

24 Pathologists Lancet laboratories (2016) Key to diagnostic excellence, South Africa.

25 American College of Sports Medicine (2009) ACSM’s guidelines for exercise testing and prescription 8th Ed. Philadelphia Lippincott Williams & Wilkens.

26 ACE fitness (2017) American Council on Exercise, USA.

27 Guthold R, Ono T, Strong KL, Chatterji S, Marabia A (2008) Worldwide variability in physical inactivity: a 51-country survey. Am J Prev Med 34: 486-94.

28 Egger G, Swinburn B (1997) An “ecological” approach to the obesity pandemic. BMJ 315: 477-80.

29 Puoane T, Steyn K, Bradshaw D, Laubscher R, Fourie J, et al. (2002) Obesity in South Africa: the South African Demographic and health survey. Obes Res 10: 1038-48.

30 World Health Organization (2011) Global status report on alcohol and health. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.

31 Steyn NP, Labadarios D, Maunder E, Nel J, Lombard C (2005) Secondary anthropometric data analysis of the National Food Consumption Survey in South Africa: the double burden. Nutrition 21: 4-13.

32 Plüddemann A, Dada S, Parry C (2013) Decline in adolescent treatment admissions for methamphetamine use in Cape Town. South African Med J 103: 478-80.

33 Mahan LK, Escott-Stump S (2008) Krause's Food & Nutrition Therapy. 12th edition Elsevier Saunders. St Louis Missouri.

34 Jacobs L, Steyn N (2013) Commentary: if you drink alcohol, drink sensibly: is this guideline still appropriate. Ethinicity and disease 23: 110-5.

35 Trevisan M, Ram M, Hovey K, Russell M, Freudenheim J, et al. (2001) Alcohol drinking patterns and myocardial infarction. Am J Epidemiol 153: S97.

36 Trevisan M, Schisterman E, Mennotti A, Farchi G, Conti S (2001) The risk factor and life expectancy research group drinking pattern and mortality: the Italian risk factor and life expectancy pooling project. Ann Epidemiol 11: 312-9.

37 Soul City (2009) Phuza wise: Drink safe, live safe. Gauteng: Soul City Institute.

38 Intoximeters (2013) About alcohol.

39 Brug J, Van Lenthe FJ, Kremers SPJ (2006) Revisiting Kurt Lewin - how to gain insight into environmental correlates of obesogenic behaviors. Am J Pre Med 31: 525-9.

40 WHO (World Health Organization) (2016) Obesity and overweight.

41 Faber M, Kruger S (2005) Dietary intake, perceptions regarding body weight, and attitudes toward weight control or normal weight, overweight, and obese black females in a rural village in South Africa. Ethnicity Disease 15: 238-45.

42 Milia DL, Mummery K (2009) The association between job related factors, short sleep and obesity. Ind Health 47: 363-8.

43 Kim MB, Lee EB, Park SH, Kim YJ, Suh YJ, et al. (2016) Long working hours and overweight and obesity in working adults. Ann Occ Environ Med 28: 36.

44 Ko GT, Chan JC, Chan AW, Wong PT, Hui SS, et al. (2007) Association between sleeping hours, working hours and obesity in Hong Kong Chinese: the 'better health for better Hong Kong‘health promotion campaign. Int J Obes 31: 254-60.

45 Lallukka T, Sarlio-Lahteenkorva S, Kaila-Kangas L, Pitkaniemi J, Luukkonen R, et al. (2008) Working conditions and weight gain: a 28-year follow-up study of industrial employees. Eur J Epidemiol 23: 303-10.

46 Micklesfield L, Pedro T, Kahn K, Kinsman J, Pettifor S, et al. (2014) Physical activity and sedentary behavior among adolescents in rural South Africa: Levels, patterns and correlates. BMC Public Health 14: 40.

47 Lloyd-Richardson EE, Lucero ML, DiBello JR, Jacobson AE, Wing RR (2008) The relationship between alcohol use, eating habits and weight change in college freshmen. Eating Behaviors 9: 504-8.

48Da Silva Pires CG, Mussi FC, De Cerqueira BB, Pitanga FJG, Da Silva DO (2013) Physical activity practice among undergraduate students in nursing. Acta Paul Enferm 26: 436-43.

49 Vella CA, Kravitz L (2002) Gender differences in fat metabolism. IDEA Health and Fitness Source 20: 36-46.

50 Whitney E, Rolfes SR (2008) Understanding Nutrition. Belmont, CA: Thomson & Wadsworth.

51 Risser WL, Gefter LR, Barrat MS, Risser JMH (1999) Weight change in adolescents who used hormonal contraception. J Adol Health 24: 433-6.

52 Racette SB, Deusinger SS, Strube MJ, Highstein GR, Deusinger RH (2008) Changes in weight and health behaviours from freshman through senior year of college. J Nutri Educ Behav 40: 39-42.

53 Crombie AP, Ilich JZ, Dutton GR, Panton LB, Abood DA (2009) The freshman weight gain phenomenon revisited. Nutrition Review 67: 83-94.

54 Vella-Zarb RA, Elgar FJ (2009) The ‘freshman 5’: a meta-analysis of weight gain in the freshman year of college. J Am Coll Health 58: 161-6.

55 Deliens T, Clarys P, De Bourdeaudhuij I, Deforche B (2014) Determinants of eating behaviour in university students: a qualitative study using focus group discussions. BMC Public Health 14: 53.

56 WHO (World Health Organization) (2003) Comparative analysis of food and nutrition policies in WHO European Member States. Full report. Copenhagen, Denmark: WHO Regional Office for Europe.

57 Tchernof A, Despres JP (2013) Pathophysiology of human visceral obesity: an update. Physiol Rev 93: 359-404.

58 Kotani K, Tokunaga K, Fujioka S, Kobatake T, Keno Y, et al. (1994) Sexual dimorphism of age-related changes in whole-body fat distribution in the obese. Int J Obes Rel Metab Disord 18: 207-2.

59 Virdis A, Giannarelli C, Neves MF, Taddei S, Ghiadoni L (2010) Cigarette smoking and hypertension. Curr Pharma Design 16: 2518-25.

60 Su J, Xianq Q, Lyu S, Pan X, Qin Y, et al. (2015) Relationship between central obesity and clustering of cardiovascular risk factors in adults of Jiangsu Province. Zhonghua Xin Xue Guan Bing Za Zhi 43: 548-53.

61 Zhang P, Wang R, Gao C, Jiang L, Lv X, et al. (2016) Prevalence of central obesity among adults with normal BMI and its association with metabolic diseases in Northeast China. PLoS One 11: e0160402.

62 Zhou X, Ji L, Ran X, Su B, Ji Q, et al. (2016) Prevalence of obesity and its influence on achievement of cardiometabolic therapeutic goals in Chinese type 2 diabetes patients: an analysis of the nationwide, cross-sectional 3B study. PloS one 11: e0144179.