Variables
Category
Total n (%)
Lowland* n (%)
Midland** n (%)
P-value

Age (y)
15-24
25-34
35-49
48 (23.8)
114 (56.4)
40 (19.8)
22 (21.2)
63 (60.6)
19 (18.2)
26 (26.5)
51 (52.0)
21 (21.5)
1.00
0.52
0.93

Education
Illiterate
Attend school
137 (67.8)
65 (32.2)
78 (75.0)
29 (25.0)
59 (60.2)
39 (39.8)
0.19
Parity
3 and below
>=4
71 (35.1)
131 (64.9)
38 (36.5)
66 (63.5)
33 (33.7)
65 (66.3)
0.80
Took deworming tablets during pregnancy
No
Yes
132 (65.3)
70 (34.7)
65 (62.3)
39 (37.7)
67 (68.4)
31 (31.6)
0.60
Family size
1-5
>5
100(49.5)
102(50.5)
54 (51.9)
50 (48.1)
48(46.9)
52(53.1)
0.80

Number of children <5 y
1 child
2 children
3 children
79 (39.1)
110 (54.5)
13 (6.4)
30 (28.8)
61 (58.7)
13 (12.5)
49 (50)
49 (50)
0
1.00
0.19
-----
Household with toilet
Yes
No
113 (55.9)
89 (44.1)
52 (50.0)
52 (50.0)
61 (62.2)
37 (37.8)

0.30
Hand washing after toilet
Yes
No
145 (71.8)
57 (28.2)
76 (73.1)
28 (26.9)

69 (70.4)
29 (29.6)
0.80
0.70

Birth interval
First birth
1-2 y
>2 y
27 (13.4)
89 (44.1)
86 (42.5)
11 (10.6)
59 (56.7)
34 (32.7)
16 (16.3)
30 (30.6)
52 (53.1)
1.00
0.14
0.96
Attend antenatal care
No
Yes
32 (15.8)
170 (84.2)
22 (21.2)
82 (78.8)
10 (10.2)
88 (89.8)
0.20
Place of delivery of index child
Home
Health institution
138 (68.3)
64 (31.7)
86 (82.7)
18 (17.3)
52 (53.1)
46 (46.9)
0.01
Meat consumption in a month
Never
1-2 times
115 (56.9)
87 (43.1)
84 (80.8)
20 (19.2)
31 (31.6)
67 (68.4)
0.00

Egg consumption in a month
Never
1-2 times
3-6 times
95 (47.0)
67 (33.2)
40 (19.8)
73 (70.2)
13 (12.5)
18 (17.3)
22 (22.4)
54 (55.2)
22 (22.4)
<.001
0.23
1.00
Eat legumes yesterday
No
Yes
60 (29.7)
142 (70.3)
59 (56.7)
45 (43.3)
1 (1)
97 (99)
<0.001
Consumption of tea/ coffee in a week
<4 times
>4 times
79 (39.1)
123 (60.9)
25 (24.0)
79 (76.0)
54 (55.1)
44 (44.9)
0.009
Drink coffee yesterday
No
Yes
27 (13.4)
175 (86.6)
18 (17.3)
86 (82.7)
9 (9.2)
89 (90.8)
0.30
Drink milk yesterday
No
Yes
146 (72.3)
56 (27.7)
51 (49.0)
53 (51.0)
95 (96.9)
3 (3.1)
<0.001
Wash salt before use
No
Yes
165 (81.7)
37 (18.3)
87 (83.7)
17 (16.3)
78 (79.6)
20 (20.4)
0.66
Practice of using salt
Add after cooking
Cook with food
43 (21.3)
159 (78.7)
9 (8.7)
95 (91.3)
34 (34.7)
64 (65.3)

0.01

*Babile District (Woreda) which is 560 km away from Addis Ababa in the eastern part of Ethiopia is representing a lowland agro-ecological zone.  **Hintalo Wajirat and Endreta districts are 683 km and 773 km away from Addis Ababa in the northern part of Ethiopia, respectively and represent midland agro-ecological zones
Table 1: Distribution of selected socio-demographic and maternal characteristics of lactating mothers in two agro-ecological zones of rural Ethiopia (N = 202)

Parameters
Lowland#
(n=104)
Midland##
(n=98)
P-Value
Age (y)
28.3 ± 5.2
28.6 ± 6.6
0.751
BMI
19.2 ± 2.3
18.9 ± 1.8
0.365
Parity
4.4 ± 2.2
4.3 ± 2.5
0.813
Children <5 y
1.8 ± 0.6
1.5 ± 0.5
0.000**
Attended antenatal care
2.7 ± 1.2
3.8 ± 1.5
0.000**
Haemoglobin (g/dl)
12.9 ± 2.0
13.4 ± 0.8
0.023**
Serum zinc (µg/l)
45.0 ± 14.0
68.8 ± 24.0
0.000**
Serum ferritin (µg/l)
26.8 ± 23.6
80.2 ± 51.0
0.000**
Median urinary iodine (µg/l)
122.1 ± 108.8
118.2 ± 83.6
0.970
Family size (total in home)
5.8 ± 2.0
5.7 ± 2.0
0.906
MUAC (cm)
22.0 ± 1.6
21.7 ± 1.4
0.930
Height of mothers (cm)
159.7 ± 5.8
159.2 ± 5.4
0.597
Birth interval (y)
2.2 ± 1.5
2.9 ± 2.0
0.014**
Weight of mothers (kg)
49.1 ± 6.8
48.1 ± 4.9
0.225
WDDS
3.0 ± 1.1
3.1 ± 0.4
0.767
Mean duration of lactation (months)
13.3 ± 4.4
13.3 ± 5.3
0.988
Values are expressed as mean ± standard deviation; BMI: Body Mass Index calculated as weight in kg/height in meter squared (kg/m2); MUAC: Mid Upper Arm Circumference; WDDS: Women Dietary Diversity Score 
**P-Values statistically significant at P <0.05
#Babile District (Woreda) which is 560 km away from Addis Ababa in the eastern part of Ethiopia is representing a lowland agro-ecological zone.  ##Hintalo Wajirat and Endreta districts are 683 km and 773 km away from Addis Ababa in the northern part of Ethiopia, respectively and represent midland agro-ecological zones
Table 2: Comparison of maternal characteristics of lactating mothers in two agro-ecological zones of rural Ethiopia (N = 202)
Responses
Total n (%)
Lowland# n (%)
Midland## n (%)
P-value
Iron deficiency
(serum ferritin SF)
Severe (<15 µg/l)
Normal ferritin value (>15 µg/l)
42 (20.8)
160 (79.2)
39 (37.5)
65(62.5)
3 (3.1)
95 (96.9)

0.000

IDA (low Hgb +SF)
Yes
No
22 (10.9)
180 (89.1)
21 (20.2)
83 (79.8)
1 (1)
97 (99)
0.000

Level of anaemia (haemoglobin)
Moderate (7-9.9 g/dl)
Mild (10-11.9 g/dl)
Overall anaemia (Hgb<12g/dl)
Non anaemic mothers
5 (2.5)
37 (17.8)
42 (20.3)
160 (79.7)
5 (4.8)
30 (28.8)
35 (33.6)
69 (66.4)
0
7 (6.1)
7 (6.1)
91 (93.9)

NA
0.000
0.000

Serum zinc
<66 μg/l
>=66μg/l
145 (71.8)
57 (28.2)
100 (96.2)
4 (3.8)
45 (45.9)
53 (54.1)

0.000

MUAC
<22 cm
>22 cm
84 (41.6)
118 (58.4)
51 (49.0)
53 (51.0)
33 (33.7)
65 (66.3)

0.027

BMI
<18.5 (kg/m2)
>18.5 (kg/m2)
85 (42.1)
117 (57.9)
42 (40.4)
61 (59.6)
43 (43.9)
56 (56.1)

0.702
Urinary iodine
<100 µg/l
>=100 µg/l
86 (42.6)
116 (57.4)
47 (45.2)
57 (54.8)
39 (39.8)
59 (60.2)
0.440
Salt iodine
0 ppm
15ppm
>15ppm
26 (12.9)
102 (50.5)
74 (36.6)
12 (11.5)
65 (62.5)
27 (26.0)
14 (14.3)
37 (37.7)
47 (48.0)
0.380
0.004

Goitre rate
Grade 2 (Visible)
Grade 1 (Palpable)
Grade 0 (No goitre)
Total goitre rate (TGR) (visible + palpable)
5 (2.5)
66 (32.7)
131 (64.9)
71 (35.2)
4 (3.8)
34 (32.7)
66 (63.5)
38 (36.5)
1 (1)
32 (32.7)
65 (66.3)
33 (33.7)
0.190
0.880
Ferritin and zinc  deficient**
Yes
No
41 (20.0)
161 (80.0)
39 (37.5)
65 (62.5)
2 (2.0)
96 (98.0)
0.000

BMI: Body Mass Index calculated as weight in kg/height in meter squared (kg/m2); MUAC: Mid Upper Arm Circumference; Hgb: Haemoglobin; SF: Serum ferritin; WDDS: Women Dietary Diversity Score
**Ferritin and zinc deficient is defined as mothers with serum ferritin less than 15 µg/l and zinc level less than 66 ℾg/l
#Babile District (Woreda) which is 560 km away from Addis Ababa in the eastern part of Ethiopia is representing a lowland agro-ecological zone.  ##HintaloWajirat and Endreta districts are 683 km and 773 km away from Addis Ababa in the northern part of Ethiopia, respectively and represent midland agro-ecological zones
Table 3: Prevalence of micronutrient deficiency and malnutrition among lactating mothers in two agro-ecological zones of rural Ethiopia (N = 202)

Variables
Ferritin
Zinc
Haemo-globin
BMI
MUAC
WDDS
Ferritin    
P. Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
1.00
Zinc
P. Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.374**
<0.001
1.00
Haemoglobin
P. Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.211**
0.003
0.096
0.173
1.00
BMI
P. Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
-0.075
0.291
-0.146*
0.039
0.165*
0.019
1.00
MUAC
P. Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
-0.078
0.270
-0.074
0.295
0.175*
0.013
.619**
<0.001
1.00
WDDS
P. Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.093
0.189
0.104
0.139
0.192**
0.006
-0.034
0.627
-0.030
0.668
1.00
Age of the mothers
P. Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
-0.052
0.46
-0.025
0.72
-0.061
0.39
0.25
<0.001
0.10
0.145
-0.01
0.87

P: Pearson correlation; BMI: Body Mass Index calculated as weight in kg/height in meter (kg/m2); MUAC: Mid Upper Arm Circumference; WDDS: Women Dietary Diversity Score
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Table 4: Correlation between micronutrients, malnutrition and Women Dietary Diversity Score among lactating mothers in rural Ethiopia (N = 202)